Exodus 1

Introduction

Exodus 1 bridges the world of Genesis and the new story of Israel's deliverance. It opens by recalling the seventy members of Jacob's family who went down to Egypt and then leaps forward across centuries with a single sentence: "Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation." In the silence between Genesis and Exodus, God's promise to Abraham has been quietly at work — the family of seventy has become a nation so numerous that it fills the land. But this growth provokes a crisis: a new Pharaoh "who did not know Joseph" sees Israel's multiplication not as a blessing but as a threat.

The chapter traces Pharaoh's escalating campaign of oppression — from forced labor to genocide. First he imposes slave labor to build his store cities. When that fails to suppress Israel's growth, he orders the Hebrew midwives to kill baby boys at birth. When the midwives refuse, fearing God more than Pharaoh, he commands all his people to throw every newborn Hebrew son into the Nile. This chapter introduces the central conflict of Exodus: the power of an empire against the purposes of God. It also introduces two of the book's most remarkable minor characters — the midwives Shiphrah and Puah, whose quiet courage defies a tyrant and preserves the future of Israel.

The Israelites Multiply in Egypt (vv. 1-7)

¹ These are the names of the sons of Israel who went to Egypt with Jacob, each with his family: ² Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; ³ Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin; ⁴ Dan and Naphtali; Gad and Asher. ⁵ The descendants of Jacob numbered seventy in all, including Joseph, who was already in Egypt. ⁶ Now Joseph and all his brothers and all that generation died, ⁷ but the Israelites were fruitful and increased rapidly; they multiplied and became exceedingly numerous, so that the land was filled with them.

¹ These are the names of the sons of Israel who came to Egypt with Jacob, each man with his household: ² Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; ³ Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin; ⁴ Dan and Naphtali, Gad and Asher. ⁵ All the persons who came from the loins of Jacob were seventy persons; Joseph was already in Egypt. ⁶ Then Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation. ⁷ But the sons of Israel were fruitful and swarmed and multiplied and grew exceedingly mighty, so that the land was filled with them.

Notes

וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמוֹת ("And these are the names") — The opening words give the book its Hebrew name, Shemot ("Names"). The conjunction וְ ("and") connects Exodus directly to Genesis — this is not a new story but a continuation. The recapitulation of the sons' names links back to Genesis 46:8-27 and signals that Israel's identity has not changed despite the passage of time.
שִׁבְעִים נָפֶשׁ ("seventy persons") — The Masoretic Text reads seventy, matching Genesis 46:27 and Deuteronomy 10:22. The Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls read seventy-five, which Stephen follows in Acts 7:14. The difference likely depends on whether Joseph's additional grandchildren through Ephraim and Manasseh are counted.
פָּרוּ וַיִּשְׁרְצוּ וַיִּרְבּוּ וַיַּעַצְמוּ בִּמְאֹד מְאֹד — This extraordinary chain of five verbs describes Israel's growth. The first verb, פָּרוּ ("were fruitful"), directly echoes the creation blessing of Genesis 1:28 and the promises to the patriarchs. The second, וַיִּשְׁרְצוּ ("swarmed"), uses the same verb applied to sea creatures in Genesis 1:20 — the Israelites are teeming like the fish of the sea or the stars of heaven, just as God promised Abraham (Genesis 15:5, Genesis 22:17). The cumulative effect is theological: God's creation mandate and covenant promises are being fulfilled, unstoppably, even in a foreign land.

Pharaoh's Oppression (vv. 8-14)

⁸ Then a new king, who did not know Joseph, came to power in Egypt. ⁹ "Look," he said to his people, "the Israelites have become too numerous and too powerful for us. ¹⁰ Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, or they will increase even more; and if a war breaks out, they may join our enemies, fight against us, and leave the country." ¹¹ So the Egyptians appointed taskmasters over the Israelites to oppress them with forced labor. As a result, they built Pithom and Rameses as store cities for Pharaoh. ¹² But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and flourished; so the Egyptians came to dread the Israelites. ¹³ They worked the Israelites ruthlessly ¹⁴ and made their lives bitter with hard labor in brick and mortar, and with all kinds of work in the fields. Every service they imposed was harsh.

⁸ Then a new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. ⁹ He said to his people, "Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more numerous and mightier than we. ¹⁰ Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, lest they multiply, and if war breaks out, they join our enemies and fight against us and go up from the land." ¹¹ So they set taskmasters over them to afflict them with their burdens. And they built store cities for Pharaoh: Pithom and Rameses. ¹² But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and the more they spread — and the Egyptians came to dread the sons of Israel. ¹³ So the Egyptians made the sons of Israel serve with ruthlessness, ¹⁴ and they made their lives bitter with hard labor — in mortar and in brick, and in every kind of labor in the field. All their labor that they imposed on them was with ruthlessness.

Notes

וַיָּקָם מֶלֶךְ חָדָשׁ עַל מִצְרָיִם אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַע אֶת יוֹסֵף ("a new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph") — The identity of this Pharaoh is debated. If the exodus occurred in the 15th century BC (early date, ~1446 BC), the oppressing Pharaoh may be a ruler of the 18th Dynasty, possibly Thutmose I. If the 13th century (late date, ~1260 BC), it would be a 19th Dynasty pharaoh, possibly Seti I or Ramesses II. The phrase "did not know" (לֹא יָדַע) may mean more than ignorance — it may mean he refused to acknowledge Joseph's legacy or the obligations Egypt owed to his people.
הָבָה נִתְחַכְּמָה לוֹ ("Come, let us deal shrewdly with them") — The Hitpael of חָכַם ("to be wise") means "to act shrewdly, to outwit." Pharaoh's "wisdom" is a dark parody of true wisdom — it is cunning deployed against God's purposes. The irony runs deep: Pharaoh's shrewd plan to reduce Israel's numbers will ultimately result in their explosive growth and his own destruction.
שָׂרֵי מִסִּים ("taskmasters" — literally "officers of forced labor") — The word מַס is the technical term for corvée labor, forced service imposed by a state on its subjects. The same word appears in Genesis 49:15 (Issachar's oracle) and later for Solomon's labor force (1 Kings 5:13). פִּתֹם and רַעַמְסֵס are store cities, supply depots for the Egyptian state. Archaeological evidence identifies Pi-Ramesses (modern Qantir) and possibly Tell el-Retabeh or Tell el-Maskhuta as these sites.
בְּפָרֶךְ ("with ruthlessness") — This word appears twice in vv. 13-14, framing the description of Israel's labor. פֶּרֶךְ means crushing, harsh, or back-breaking work — labor designed not just to produce but to destroy. The repetition emphasizes that the oppression was systematic and intentional. The same word appears in Leviticus 25:43, 46, where Israelites are forbidden from treating one another with the ruthlessness Egypt used against them.
וַיְמָרְרוּ אֶת חַיֵּיהֶם ("they made their lives bitter") — The verb מָרַר ("to make bitter") will echo later in the Passover meal, where bitter herbs (מָרוֹר) are eaten to remember the bitterness of slavery (Exodus 12:8). The bitterness of Egypt is not just a historical memory but a liturgical reality relived every Passover.

The Midwives Defy Pharaoh (vv. 15-21)

¹⁵ Then the king of Egypt said to the Hebrew midwives, whose names were Shiphrah and Puah, ¹⁶ "When you help the Hebrew women give birth, observe them on the birthstools. If the child is a son, kill him; but if it is a daughter, let her live." ¹⁷ The midwives, however, feared God and did not do as the king of Egypt had instructed; they let the boys live. ¹⁸ So the king of Egypt summoned the midwives and asked them, "Why have you done this? Why have you let the boys live?" ¹⁹ The midwives answered Pharaoh, "The Hebrew women are not like the Egyptian women, for they are vigorous and give birth before a midwife arrives." ²⁰ So God was good to the midwives, and the people multiplied and became even more numerous. ²¹ And because the midwives feared God, He gave them families of their own.

¹⁵ Then the king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives — the name of the one was Shiphrah, and the name of the other Puah — ¹⁶ and he said, "When you serve as midwife to the Hebrew women and see them on the birthstool, if it is a son, you shall kill him; but if it is a daughter, she shall live." ¹⁷ But the midwives feared God and did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them, but let the boys live. ¹⁸ So the king of Egypt called the midwives and said to them, "Why have you done this, and let the boys live?" ¹⁹ The midwives said to Pharaoh, "Because the Hebrew women are not like the Egyptian women, for they are vigorous and give birth before the midwife comes to them." ²⁰ So God dealt well with the midwives, and the people multiplied and grew very mighty. ²¹ And because the midwives feared God, he made them houses.

Notes

לַמְיַלְּדֹת הָעִבְרִיֹּת ("the Hebrew midwives") — The phrase is ambiguous: it could mean "the midwives of the Hebrew women" (i.e., Egyptian midwives who served Hebrews) or "the midwives who were Hebrew women" (i.e., Hebrew midwives). Most interpreters take them as Hebrew women, since their names are Semitic: שִׁפְרָה (meaning "beauty" or "fair") and פּוּעָה (meaning "splendor" or the cry of a newborn). That only two midwives are named likely means they were the chief midwives overseeing others. Their names are recorded while Pharaoh's is not — a pointed contrast between the remembered faithfulness of the humble and the anonymity of the tyrant.
הָאָבְנָיִם ("the birthstool") — This dual-form noun (literally "the two stones") refers to the stone or brick stool on which women sat or squatted during delivery. The midwives were to check the sex of the child at the moment of birth and kill boys before the mother could intervene.
וַתִּירֶאןָ הַמְיַלְּדֹת אֶת הָאֱלֹהִים ("the midwives feared God") — The fear of God, not the fear of Pharaoh, determined their action. The verb יָרֵא ("to fear") in this context means reverence, awe, and moral obedience. This is the first instance in Exodus of a theme that will dominate the book: whose authority is supreme — Pharaoh's or God's?
כִּי חָיוֹת הֵנָּה ("for they are vigorous") — The midwives' response to Pharaoh is often debated. The word חָיוֹת means "lively, vigorous" (from חַי, "living") — the Hebrew women are so full of life that they deliver before the midwives arrive. Whether this was entirely truthful, a half-truth, or a creative deception has been discussed at length. The narrative does not condemn them; instead, God rewards them.
וַיַּעַשׂ לָהֶם בָּתִּים ("he made them houses") — The word בָּתִּים means "houses" in the sense of families or dynasties. Because the midwives protected Israel's houses (families), God established their houses (families). The reward matches the deed — those who preserved life were given the gift of life.

Interpretations

The midwives' deception of Pharaoh raises ethical questions:

The deception was justified: Many interpreters, including Augustine and Calvin (with qualifications), argue that the midwives were right to disobey an immoral order. Their primary virtue was the fear of God, which took precedence over obedience to a wicked king. The deception was a necessary means of preserving innocent life in a situation of extreme injustice. God's reward confirms their overall righteousness.
The deception was a weakness: Some interpreters, following Augustine more strictly, distinguish between the midwives' courageous disobedience (which was good) and their deception (which was a sin of weakness). On this view, God rewarded their fear of Him and their refusal to kill, not their lying. Their faith was genuine but imperfect.
The narrative is descriptive, not prescriptive: The text describes what the midwives did and records God's response without making an explicit moral judgment on the deception itself. The emphasis falls on their fear of God as the motive force, leaving the ethics of deception in wartime or under tyranny as a matter for broader theological reflection.

Pharaoh's Decree of Genocide (v. 22)

²² Then Pharaoh commanded all his people: "Every son born to the Hebrews you must throw into the Nile, but every daughter you may allow to live."

²² Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, saying, "Every son that is born you shall throw into the Nile, but every daughter you shall let live."

Notes

הַיְאֹרָה תַּשְׁלִיכֻהוּ ("you shall throw him into the Nile") — The Nile (יְאוֹר, an Egyptian loanword) was worshiped as a god in Egypt, the source of life and fertility. Pharaoh commands that it become an instrument of death. The terrible irony is that the very river will soon be turned to blood in the first plague (Exodus 7:17-21) — God turning Egypt's "god" against them.
The Hebrew text of v. 22 reads simply "every son that is born" without specifying "to the Hebrews." The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Targum add "to the Hebrews" for clarity, and most translations follow this reading. However, the ambiguity of the Hebrew may be intentional — Pharaoh's paranoia has escalated to the point where the command is given to "all his people," a decree of sweeping, indiscriminate violence.
This decree escalates the oppression in three stages: first, forced labor (v. 11); then, covert infanticide through the midwives (vv. 15-16); finally, open genocide by the entire population (v. 22). Each stage reveals Pharaoh's increasing desperation and cruelty. Yet each stage also fails — the more Israel is oppressed, the more they multiply (v. 12). The chapter sets up the dramatic rescue of Moses in Exodus 2, where Pharaoh's own daughter will draw a Hebrew son from the very river meant to drown him.