Exodus 22
Introduction
Exodus 22 continues the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22–Exodus 23:33), the collection of case law that God delivers to Moses on Mount Sinai following the Ten Commandments. Where Exodus 21 dealt primarily with laws governing persons — slaves, injuries, and violence — chapter 22 shifts to laws governing property, social responsibility, and the holiness of the covenant community. The chapter opens with theft and restitution (vv. 1-4), moves through property damage and custodial liability (vv. 5-15), addresses sexual offenses and capital religious crimes (vv. 16-20), and culminates in some of the most poignant ethical commands in the Torah: the protection of foreigners, widows, and orphans, the prohibition of exploitative lending, and the call to be a holy people (vv. 21-31).
What distinguishes these laws from other ancient Near Eastern legal codes (such as the Code of Hammurabi) is their theological grounding. The laws are not simply pragmatic regulations for social order — they are rooted in the character and experience of God himself. The foreigner must not be oppressed "for you were foreigners in Egypt" (v. 21). The poor man's cloak must be returned before sunset because "if he cries out to me, I will hear, for I am compassionate" (v. 27). God personally enters the legal framework as advocate for the vulnerable and as the one who enforces justice when human courts fail. The chapter closes with a sweeping statement of identity: "You are to be my holy people" (v. 31) — a reminder that every law in this section flows from Israel's covenantal relationship with the LORD.
Laws About Theft and Restitution (vv. 1-4)
1 "If a man steals an ox or a sheep and slaughters or sells it, he must repay five oxen for an ox and four sheep for a sheep. 2 If a thief is caught breaking in and is beaten to death, no one shall be guilty of bloodshed. 3 But if it happens after sunrise, there is guilt for his bloodshed. A thief must make full restitution; if he has nothing, he himself shall be sold for his theft. 4 If what was stolen is actually found alive in his possession — whether ox or donkey or sheep — he must pay back double.
1 "If a man steals an ox or a sheep and slaughters it or sells it, he shall pay back five cattle in place of the ox and four of the flock in place of the sheep. 2 If the thief is found tunneling in and is struck and dies, there is no bloodguilt for him. 3 But if the sun has risen on him, there is bloodguilt for him. He must make full restitution; if he has nothing, he shall be sold for his theft. 4 If the stolen animal is actually found alive in his hand — whether ox or donkey or sheep — he shall pay back double.
Notes
This section continues directly from the case laws at the end of Exodus 21. In the Hebrew Masoretic text, what English Bibles number as 22:1 is actually the final verse of chapter 21 (Hebrew 21:37), and what English Bibles call 22:2 begins the Hebrew chapter 22. This verse numbering difference persists throughout the chapter (English verses are one ahead of Hebrew verses). The section headings and verse numbers in this study follow the English convention used by the BSB and other standard translations.
חֲמִשָּׁה בָקָר ... וְאַרְבַּע צֹאן ("five cattle ... and four of the flock") — The restitution for a stolen and slaughtered or sold ox is five-fold, while for a sheep it is four-fold. The higher penalty for the ox likely reflects its greater economic value as a draft animal essential for plowing and agriculture. The ox represents both livelihood and capital investment, so its loss has greater consequences. The rabbis also noted that the ox-thief had to carry or lead the heavy animal (showing greater deliberation), while the sheep-thief carried the lighter animal on his shoulders, which some saw as a slightly mitigating circumstance. David unknowingly pronounced four-fold restitution for the theft of a lamb in Nathan's parable (2 Samuel 12:6), and Zacchaeus offered four-fold restitution to those he had defrauded (Luke 19:8).
The verb יְשַׁלֵּם ("he shall pay back, make restitution") is from the Piel of שָׁלֵם, meaning "to make whole, complete, restore." This root also gives us the word שָׁלוֹם ("peace, wholeness, well-being"). The concept embedded in the language is that theft creates a breach in the community's wholeness, and restitution is what restores it. The goal of biblical law here is not merely punishment but the restoration of right relationship — making the victim whole.
בַּמַּחְתֶּרֶת ("tunneling in, breaking in") — The noun מַחְתֶּרֶת derives from חָתַר ("to dig through"). Ancient Israelite homes had mud-brick or stone walls, and a thief would literally tunnel through the wall to gain entry. The law distinguishes between killing a thief caught breaking in at night (v. 2) and one caught during daylight (v. 3). At night, the homeowner cannot assess the threat — the intruder might be armed, might be violent — so lethal force in self-defense incurs no bloodguilt. The phrase אֵין לוֹ דָּמִים (literally "there are no bloods for him") means there is no liability for shedding the thief's blood. But after sunrise (אִם זָרְחָה הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ עָלָיו, "if the sun has risen on him"), the homeowner can see and evaluate the situation, and lethal force becomes disproportionate — דָּמִים לוֹ, "there is bloodguilt for him." This distinction reveals a deep concern for proportionality and for the sanctity of human life, even the life of a criminal.
שְׁנַיִם יְשַׁלֵּם ("he shall pay back double") — If the stolen animal is found alive and still in the thief's possession (v. 4), the penalty is only double restitution, not four- or five-fold. The distinction is significant: if the animal was slaughtered or sold, the theft is irreversible and the penalty is higher; if it is recovered alive, the damage is lesser and the penalty is lower. The Hebrew uses an emphatic construction — הִמָּצֵא תִמָּצֵא (infinitive absolute + finite verb, "is actually found") — stressing certainty of discovery.
Laws About Property Damage (vv. 5-6)
5 If a man grazes his livestock in a field or vineyard and allows them to stray so that they graze in someone else's field, he must make restitution from the best of his own field or vineyard. 6 If a fire breaks out and spreads to thornbushes so that it consumes stacked or standing grain, or the whole field, the one who started the fire must make full restitution.
5 If a man causes a field or vineyard to be grazed over, and lets his livestock loose so that it grazes in another man's field, he shall make restitution from the best of his own field and the best of his own vineyard. 6 If a fire breaks out and catches in thorns, and a stack of grain, or the standing grain, or the field itself is consumed, the one who started the fire shall surely make restitution.
Notes
כִּי יַבְעֶר אִישׁ שָׂדֶה אוֹ כֶרֶם ("if a man causes a field or vineyard to be grazed over") — The verb בָּעַר in the Hiphil means "to cause to be grazed" or "to burn." Some interpreters take it as "to graze" (from a second root meaning to consume by grazing), while others connect it to fire (as in v. 6). Most commentators and translations take v. 5 as a case of grazing damage and v. 6 as a case of fire damage — two distinct scenarios of agricultural negligence. The word בְּעִירוֹ ("his livestock") comes from the same root, reinforcing the grazing interpretation.
מֵיטַב שָׂדֵהוּ וּמֵיטַב כַּרְמוֹ ("from the best of his field and the best of his vineyard") — The restitution is calculated not from the average produce of the offender's land but from its best. The word מֵיטַב ("best, choicest") comes from טוֹב ("good"). This ensures that the victim receives full compensation and that negligence carries a real cost. The offender cannot offer inferior produce as restitution.
קֹצִים ("thorns, thornbushes") — Dry thornbushes in the arid climate of the ancient Near East were extremely flammable and could quickly spread fire to cultivated fields. The law addresses accidental fire — the phrase כִּי תֵצֵא אֵשׁ ("if a fire goes out") uses the feminine verb with "fire" as subject, suggesting the fire "escapes" from the control of the one who lit it. The person who started the fire is still liable even though the spread was unintended, because they had a duty to control it. The objects that may be destroyed — גָּדִישׁ ("stacked grain"), הַקָּמָה ("standing grain"), and הַשָּׂדֶה ("the field") — represent the full spectrum of agricultural loss: harvested grain, unharvested grain, and the land itself.
The emphatic construction שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם ("he shall surely make restitution") underscores the absolute obligation. The infinitive absolute strengthens the verb to express certainty: there is no escape from liability for the one who started the fire.
Laws About Entrusted Property (vv. 7-13)
7 If a man gives his neighbor money or goods for safekeeping and they are stolen from the neighbor's house, the thief, if caught, must pay back double. 8 If the thief is not found, the owner of the house must appear before the judges to determine whether he has taken his neighbor's property. 9 In all cases of illegal possession of an ox, a donkey, a sheep, a garment, or any lost item that someone claims, 'This is mine,' both parties shall bring their cases before the judges. The one whom the judges find guilty must pay back double to his neighbor. 10 If a man gives a donkey, an ox, a sheep, or any other animal to be cared for by his neighbor, but it dies or is injured or stolen while no one is watching, 11 an oath before the LORD shall be made between the parties to determine whether or not the man has taken his neighbor's property. The owner must accept the oath and require no restitution. 12 But if the animal was actually stolen from the neighbor, he must make restitution to the owner. 13 If the animal was torn to pieces, he shall bring it as evidence; he need not make restitution for the torn carcass.
7 If a man gives his neighbor silver or goods to keep, and it is stolen from the man's house — if the thief is found, he shall pay back double. 8 If the thief is not found, the owner of the house shall come near before God, to determine whether he has laid his hand on his neighbor's property. 9 In every case of wrongful claim — concerning an ox, a donkey, a sheep, a garment, or any lost thing — where someone says, 'This is mine,' the case of both parties shall come before God. The one whom God declares guilty shall pay double to his neighbor. 10 If a man gives his neighbor a donkey, an ox, a sheep, or any animal to keep, and it dies or is injured or is carried off, with no one seeing, 11 an oath before the LORD shall be between the two of them, to determine whether he has laid his hand on his neighbor's property. The owner shall accept the oath, and he shall not make restitution. 12 But if it is in fact stolen from him, he shall make restitution to its owner. 13 If it was torn by a wild animal, let him bring it as evidence; he shall not make restitution for what was torn.
Notes
כֶּסֶף אוֹ כֵלִים לִשְׁמֹר ("silver or goods to keep") — The word כֶּסֶף means "silver" and by extension "money" (since silver served as the primary medium of exchange). The word כֵּלִים ("vessels, utensils, goods") is a broad term covering any movable property. The verb שָׁמַר ("to keep, guard, watch over") establishes the legal concept of bailment — a person entrusted with another's property for safekeeping has a duty of care.
הָאֱלֹהִים ("God" or "the judges") — This word appears in vv. 8 and 9, and its meaning is debated. The word אֱלֹהִים can mean "God," "gods," or "judges/rulers" (as human authorities acting in God's name). The BSB translates it as "the judges" (with a footnote noting "or before God"), while the ESV uses "God." The KJV has "the judges." The ambiguity may be deliberate: the human judges sit in God's place, and their verdict carries divine authority. My translation uses "God" because the Hebrew text uses the definite article with אֱלֹהִים, and because the judicial proceeding described appears to be a solemn sacred inquiry rather than a simple civil hearing. In either reading, the point is that disputed property cases are ultimately adjudicated before God.
אִם לֹא שָׁלַח יָדוֹ בִּמְלֶאכֶת רֵעֵהוּ ("whether he has laid his hand on his neighbor's property") — The idiom "to send forth the hand" (שָׁלַח יָד) means to take or appropriate something. The inquiry determines whether the bailee himself is the thief — whether he "helped himself" to what was entrusted to him. The word מְלָאכָה here means "property" or "goods" (literally "work," but used by extension for the product of labor).
דְּבַר פֶּשַׁע ("case of wrongful claim" or "matter of trespass") — The word פֶּשַׁע means "transgression, rebellion, breach of trust." In v. 9, the law broadens from the specific case of stolen deposits (vv. 7-8) to any dispute over property where one person claims ownership and another contests it. The resolution comes before God/the judges, and the guilty party pays double.
שְׁבֻעַת יְהוָה ("an oath before the LORD") — When an animal entrusted to a neighbor's care dies, is injured, or is carried off without witnesses (v. 10), the case cannot be resolved by evidence. Instead, the bailee takes a solemn oath before the LORD (v. 11). If he swears that he did not appropriate the animal, the owner must accept the oath — וְלָקַח בְּעָלָיו ("the owner shall accept it"). No restitution is required. This reflects the deeply theocentric character of Israelite law: where human evidence fails, the matter is placed before God, and a false oath would bring divine punishment on the perjurer.
טָרֹף יִטָּרֵף ("if it was indeed torn") — Another infinitive absolute construction expressing emphatic certainty. If a wild animal tore the entrusted livestock, the keeper brings the remains (עֵד, "witness/evidence" — the carcass itself testifies) and is absolved. The word טְרֵפָה ("torn animal") later becomes a key term in Jewish dietary law — טְרֵפָה or "treif" refers to meat that is not kosher, including an animal killed by predators rather than properly slaughtered. The concept appears again in v. 31 of this very chapter.
Laws About Borrowed Animals (vv. 14-15)
14 If a man borrows an animal from his neighbor and it is injured or dies while its owner is not present, he must make full restitution. 15 If the owner was present, no restitution is required. If the animal was rented, the fee covers the loss.
14 If a man borrows something from his neighbor, and it is injured or dies while its owner is not with it, he shall surely make restitution. 15 If its owner was with it, he shall not make restitution. If it was hired, it came for its hire.
Notes
וְכִי יִשְׁאַל אִישׁ מֵעִם רֵעֵהוּ ("if a man borrows from his neighbor") — The verb שָׁאַל ("to ask, request, borrow") establishes a different legal situation from the previous cases: here the person has borrowed, not been entrusted with safekeeping. The borrower has the full benefit of the animal and therefore bears greater responsibility. If the animal is injured or dies while the owner is absent, the borrower must make full restitution — שַׁלֵּם יְשַׁלֵּם, the emphatic "he shall surely pay."
בְּעָלָיו אֵין עִמּוֹ ("its owner is not with it") — The presence or absence of the owner is the deciding factor. If the owner is present and sees the injury or death occur, he bears shared responsibility for the risk and no restitution is owed (v. 15). If the owner is absent, the borrower alone is liable because only he witnessed what happened and had control of the situation.
אִם שָׂכִיר הוּא בָּא בִּשְׂכָרוֹ ("if it was hired, it came for its hire") — The final clause addresses a third scenario: the animal was not borrowed for free but rented for a fee. In that case, the rental fee (שְׂכָר, "hire, wages") is understood to include the risk of loss. The renter does not owe additional restitution because the payment already accounts for the possibility of damage. This distinction between borrowing (free use, full liability) and hiring (paid use, reduced liability) reveals a sophisticated understanding of risk distribution in commercial transactions.
Laws About Seduction and Capital Offenses (vv. 16-20)
16 If a man seduces a virgin who is not pledged in marriage and sleeps with her, he must pay the full dowry for her to be his wife. 17 If her father absolutely refuses to give her to him, the man still must pay an amount comparable to the bridal price of a virgin. 18 You must not allow a sorceress to live. 19 Whoever lies with an animal must surely be put to death. 20 If anyone sacrifices to any god other than the LORD alone, he must be set apart for destruction.
16 If a man seduces a virgin who is not betrothed and lies with her, he shall surely pay the bride-price for her to become his wife. 17 If her father utterly refuses to give her to him, he shall weigh out silver according to the bride-price for virgins. 18 You shall not allow a sorceress to live. 19 Anyone who lies with an animal shall surely be put to death. 20 Whoever sacrifices to any gods, except to the LORD alone, shall be devoted to destruction.
Notes
וְכִי יְפַתֶּה אִישׁ בְּתוּלָה ("if a man seduces a virgin") — The verb פָּתָה in the Piel means "to entice, persuade, seduce." It implies persuasion rather than force — compare Deuteronomy 22:25-27, which addresses rape as a distinct and more severely punished crime. The word בְּתוּלָה ("virgin") denotes an unmarried young woman of marriageable age. The qualifying phrase אֲשֶׁר לֹא אֹרָשָׂה ("who is not betrothed") is critical: betrothal in ancient Israel was a legally binding commitment, and sexual relations with a betrothed woman constituted adultery, a capital offense (Deuteronomy 22:23-24).
מָהֹר יִמְהָרֶנָּה לּוֹ לְאִשָּׁה ("he shall surely pay the bride-price for her to become his wife") — The infinitive absolute מָהֹר with the finite verb יִמְהָרֶנָּה creates an emphatic construction. The מֹהַר ("bride-price") was a payment from the groom's family to the bride's family, compensating for the loss of the daughter's labor and establishing the marriage covenant. The law's primary concern is the protection of the woman: a seduced virgin's marriage prospects could be severely diminished, so the man is required to marry her and pay the full bride-price. However, the father retains veto power (v. 17) — he is not compelled to give his daughter to a man he considers unworthy. Even if the father refuses, the seducer must still pay the full bride-price as compensation. Deuteronomy 22:28-29 specifies the amount as fifty shekels of silver.
כֶּסֶף יִשְׁקֹל כְּמֹהַר הַבְּתוּלֹת ("he shall weigh out silver according to the bride-price for virgins") — The verb שָׁקַל ("to weigh") is the root of "shekel." In the pre-coinage economy of ancient Israel, silver was weighed on scales rather than counted as coins.
מְכַשֵּׁפָה לֹא תְחַיֶּה ("you shall not allow a sorceress to live") — The feminine participle מְכַשֵּׁפָה ("sorceress") comes from כָּשַׁף ("to practice sorcery"). The feminine form is used here, though the masculine principle applies equally (cf. Deuteronomy 18:10-12, which forbids sorcery for both genders). Sorcery was considered an attempt to manipulate supernatural powers apart from God — a direct assault on the LORD's exclusive sovereignty over the spiritual realm. The broader prohibition of divination, necromancy, and magic in Deuteronomy 18:9-14 places sorcery within the category of abominable Canaanite practices.
כָּל שֹׁכֵב עִם בְּהֵמָה מוֹת יוּמָת ("anyone who lies with an animal shall surely be put to death") — The emphatic מוֹת יוּמָת ("dying he shall die") is the standard formula for capital offenses in the Torah. Bestiality is condemned as a violation of the created order established in Genesis 1, where living creatures are made "according to their kinds." Leviticus 18:23 calls it תֶּבֶל ("perversion, confusion"), a word connoting the blurring of boundaries that God established in creation. Leviticus 20:15-16 prescribes the death penalty for both the human and the animal.
זֹבֵחַ לָאֱלֹהִים יָחֳרָם בִּלְתִּי לַיהוָה לְבַדּוֹ ("whoever sacrifices to gods shall be devoted to destruction, except to the LORD alone") — The verb חָרַם in the Hophal means "to be devoted to destruction." The חֵרֶם was the most severe form of divine judgment — total, irrevocable dedication to God through destruction. The same term is used for the destruction of Canaanite cities in the conquest (Deuteronomy 7:2, Joshua 6:17-21). That a fellow Israelite who sacrifices to other gods receives the same sentence as a conquered enemy city reveals how seriously apostasy was treated. The exclusive claim — לַיהוָה לְבַדּוֹ ("to the LORD alone") — is the practical outworking of the first commandment (Exodus 20:3).
Interpretations
The law about the sorceress (v. 18) has a complicated reception history. This verse (in its KJV rendering "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live") was notoriously invoked during the European and colonial witch trials to justify the execution of accused practitioners of witchcraft. Most modern interpreters recognize that the original context addresses specific religious practices in the ancient Near East — attempts to manipulate spiritual powers through incantations, potions, and rituals — that were seen as incompatible with exclusive loyalty to the LORD. The law is directed against practices that undermine the covenant relationship, not against the folk-magic fears of later centuries. Protestant commentators generally understand this as part of the broader prohibition of occult practices in Deuteronomy 18:9-14, while noting that the New Testament addresses spiritual warfare through the authority of Christ rather than through civil execution (Ephesians 6:10-12, Acts 19:18-20).
Protection of the Vulnerable (vv. 21-27)
21 You must not exploit or oppress a foreign resident, for you yourselves were foreigners in the land of Egypt. 22 You must not mistreat any widow or orphan. 23 If you do mistreat them, and they cry out to Me in distress, I will surely hear their cry. 24 My anger will be kindled, and I will kill you with the sword; then your wives will become widows and your children will be fatherless. 25 If you lend money to one of My people among you who is poor, you must not act as a creditor to him; you are not to charge him interest. 26 If you take your neighbor's cloak as collateral, return it to him by sunset, 27 because his cloak is the only covering he has for his body. What else will he sleep in? And if he cries out to Me, I will hear, for I am compassionate.
21 You shall not wrong a foreigner or oppress him, for you were foreigners in the land of Egypt. 22 You shall not mistreat any widow or orphan. 23 If you do mistreat them, and they cry out to me at all, I will surely hear their cry. 24 And my anger will burn, and I will kill you with the sword, and your wives will become widows and your children fatherless. 25 If you lend silver to my people, to the poor among you, you shall not be to him like a creditor; you shall not impose interest on him. 26 If you take your neighbor's cloak as a pledge, you shall return it to him before the sun goes down, 27 for it is his only covering — it is his garment for his skin. In what else will he sleep? And when he cries out to me, I will hear, for I am compassionate.
Notes
וְגֵר לֹא תוֹנֶה וְלֹא תִלְחָצֶנּוּ ("you shall not wrong a foreigner or oppress him") — Two verbs describe different types of abuse. יָנָה (Hiphil: תוֹנֶה) means "to exploit, wrong, mistreat" — often through deception, fraud, or taking advantage. לָחַץ (תִלְחָצֶנּוּ) means "to press, squeeze, oppress" — economic or physical coercion. Together they cover the full spectrum of mistreatment. The גֵּר ("foreigner, resident alien, sojourner") was a non-Israelite living within Israel's borders, lacking the social network and legal protections that came with clan membership. The motivating clause — כִּי גֵרִים הֱיִיתֶם בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם ("for you were foreigners in the land of Egypt") — is one of the most powerful ethical arguments in the Torah. Israel's own experience of being vulnerable aliens in a foreign land should produce empathy, not a repetition of the oppression they suffered. This command appears repeatedly in the Torah (Exodus 23:9, Leviticus 19:33-34, Deuteronomy 10:18-19).
כָּל אַלְמָנָה וְיָתוֹם לֹא תְעַנּוּן ("you shall not mistreat any widow or orphan") — The אַלְמָנָה ("widow") and יָתוֹם ("orphan, fatherless child") represent the most economically and socially vulnerable members of ancient Israelite society. Without a husband or father, they had no legal advocate, no land rights, and no guaranteed income. The verb עָנָה (Piel: "to mistreat, afflict, oppress") is the same word used for Egypt's oppression of Israel (Exodus 1:11-12). The word כָּל ("any, every") makes the prohibition absolute — no widow or orphan, without exception.
אִם עַנֵּה תְעַנֶּה אֹתוֹ כִּי אִם צָעֹק יִצְעַק אֵלַי שָׁמֹעַ אֶשְׁמַע צַעֲקָתוֹ — This extraordinary sentence piles up three infinitive absolute constructions in succession: "if you indeed mistreat... they will indeed cry out... I will indeed hear." The cumulative effect in Hebrew is overwhelming — each emphatic form intensifies the next, building to the climax of God's personal intervention. The pronoun shifts are striking: "if you mistreat them" (plural object), "he cries out to me" (singular — each individual sufferer has God's attention), "I will hear his cry." God is not a distant legislator; he is the personal advocate who hears every individual cry.
וְחָרָה אַפִּי ("my anger will burn") — Literally "my nose will burn hot," since אַף means both "nose" and "anger" (the image is of flared nostrils in fury). The punishment is devastating in its symmetry: those who make others' wives into widows and children into orphans will themselves have widowed wives and fatherless children. The measure-for-measure justice (מִדָּה כְּנֶגֶד מִדָּה) is a consistent principle in biblical law. God promises to do to the oppressor exactly what the oppressor did to the vulnerable.
לֹא תִהְיֶה לוֹ כְּנֹשֶׁה ("you shall not be to him like a creditor") — The word נֹשֶׁה (Qal participle of נָשָׁה, "to lend at interest, to be a creditor") describes a professional moneylender who extracts profit from loans. The prohibition is not against lending itself but against predatory lending to the poor. The word נֶשֶׁךְ ("interest") literally means "a bite" — interest "bites" into the borrower's resources. The imagery is vivid: charging interest to the poor is like a snake sinking its teeth into someone already wounded. Leviticus 25:35-37 expands this law, and Deuteronomy 23:19-20 permits interest on loans to foreigners engaged in commerce but prohibits it for fellow Israelites. Psalm 15:5 includes not lending at interest as a characteristic of the righteous person who may dwell in God's presence.
אִם חָבֹל תַּחְבֹּל שַׂלְמַת רֵעֶךָ ("if you take your neighbor's cloak as a pledge") — The verb חָבַל means "to take as a pledge, to take as security for a debt." A שַׂלְמָה ("cloak, outer garment") served as a poor person's blanket at night — the large rectangular cloth was worn as an outer wrap during the day and used as a bedcover at night. To keep it overnight would be to deprive a poor person of the basic necessity of warmth. The law requires its return by sunset (עַד בֹּא הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ תְּשִׁיבֶנּוּ לוֹ). Deuteronomy 24:10-13 expands this regulation further, and Job 22:6 and Amos 2:8 condemn those who violate it.
כִּי הִוא כְסוּתוֹ לְבַדָּהּ הִוא שִׂמְלָתוֹ לְעֹרוֹ בַּמֶּה יִשְׁכָּב ("for it is his only covering — it is his garment for his skin. In what else will he sleep?") — The pathos of this verse is remarkable for a legal text. The law pauses its casuistic formulations to speak in the voice of empathy. Three phrases pile up to convey the man's destitution: it is his "only covering" (כְסוּתוֹ לְבַדָּהּ), it is his "garment for his skin" (שִׂמְלָתוֹ לְעֹרוֹ), and then the piercing rhetorical question — בַּמֶּה יִשְׁכָּב, "in what will he lie down?" The text asks the creditor to imagine the debtor shivering through the night, and then declares that God will hear that man's cry. The closing declaration — כִּי חַנּוּן אָנִי, "for I am compassionate" — uses the adjective חַנּוּן ("gracious, compassionate"), the same word God will use to describe himself in the great self-revelation of Exodus 34:6: "The LORD, the LORD, a God compassionate and gracious." God's character is the ultimate ground of social ethics.
Interpretations
The prohibition of interest (v. 25) has generated extensive debate across Christian history. Medieval Catholic teaching broadly prohibited usury (lending at interest) to fellow Christians, following the plain sense of this text and its parallels. The Protestant Reformers, particularly John Calvin, argued that the prohibition applied specifically to exploitative lending to the poor and was not a blanket ban on all commercial interest — Calvin distinguished between charitable loans to the destitute (where interest is forbidden) and commercial loans between merchants (where reasonable interest is permissible). Modern economic theology generally follows Calvin's distinction, noting that the biblical concern is the exploitation of the vulnerable, not the existence of financial markets per se. Some traditions (including certain Anabaptist groups) maintain a stricter reading, arguing that any interest on loans among believers violates the spirit of these commands. The broader principle — that economic relationships within the covenant community must be shaped by compassion rather than extraction — remains widely affirmed across traditions.
Laws About Reverence and Holiness (vv. 28-31)
28 You must not blaspheme God or curse the ruler of your people. 29 You must not hold back offerings from your granaries or vats. You are to give Me the firstborn of your sons. 30 You shall do likewise with your cattle and your sheep. Let them stay with their mothers for seven days, but on the eighth day you are to give them to Me. 31 You are to be My holy people. You must not eat the meat of a mauled animal found in the field; you are to throw it to the dogs.
28 You shall not revile God, and you shall not curse a ruler among your people. 29 You shall not delay offering from your fullness and from your overflow. The firstborn of your sons you shall give to me. 30 You shall do the same with your oxen and your sheep: seven days it shall remain with its mother; on the eighth day you shall give it to me. 31 You shall be holy people to me. You shall not eat flesh torn by wild animals in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs.
Notes
אֱלֹהִים לֹא תְקַלֵּל ("you shall not revile God") — The verb קָלַל in the Piel means "to curse, revile, treat with contempt." The word אֱלֹהִים here most likely refers to God himself, though the LXX translates it as "gods" (in the sense of "rulers" or "judges"), and some interpreters understand it as "judges" (as in vv. 8-9). Paul quotes this verse in Acts 23:5 after inadvertently reviling the high priest, applying the parallel clause about the ruler to his situation. The word נָשִׂיא ("ruler, chief, prince") comes from נָשָׂא ("to lift up") — the ruler is one who has been "raised up" to a position of authority. Together, the two prohibitions establish that both divine and human authority must be treated with respect — the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the covenant community.
מְלֵאָתְךָ וְדִמְעֲךָ לֹא תְאַחֵר ("you shall not delay from your fullness and your overflow") — This is one of the more difficult phrases in the chapter. מְלֵאָה ("fullness") refers to the full produce of the harvest — grain from the threshing floor. דֶּמַע ("overflow, juice") refers to the liquid produce — wine from the press or olive oil from the vat. The verb אָחַר (Piel: "to delay, hold back") prohibits procrastination in making offerings. The firstfruits belong to God and must be given promptly, not withheld or delayed. The command to give the firstborn of sons (בְּכוֹר בָּנֶיךָ תִּתֶּן לִּי) echoes Exodus 13:1-2 and Exodus 13:11-16, where the firstborn are "redeemed" — dedicated to God through a substitutionary payment, not through actual sacrifice (unlike the surrounding Canaanite practice of child sacrifice, which is repeatedly condemned: Leviticus 18:21, Deuteronomy 12:31).
שִׁבְעַת יָמִים יִהְיֶה עִם אִמּוֹ בַּיּוֹם הַשְּׁמִינִי תִּתְּנוֹ לִי ("seven days it shall remain with its mother; on the eighth day you shall give it to me") — The newborn animal must stay with its mother for a full week before being offered. This regulation appears compassionate even within a sacrificial system — it allows the natural bond between mother and offspring and ensures the animal has reached a minimum viability. The eighth day is significant throughout Scripture as the day of new beginnings: circumcision occurs on the eighth day (Genesis 17:12, Leviticus 12:3), and the consecration of the tabernacle was completed on the eighth day (Leviticus 9:1). Leviticus 22:27 repeats this requirement.
וְאַנְשֵׁי קֹדֶשׁ תִּהְיוּן לִי ("you shall be holy people to me") — This closing declaration is the theological capstone of the entire chapter. The word קֹדֶשׁ ("holiness, set apart") defines Israel's fundamental identity: they are a people set apart for God. Every law in this chapter — from restitution for theft to compassion for the poor to the prompt offering of firstfruits — flows from this identity. Holiness is not merely ritual purity; it encompasses the full range of ethical, social, and religious life. The practical outworking is immediate: holy people do not eat טְרֵפָה ("flesh torn by wild animals"). An animal killed by predators rather than by proper slaughter has not had its blood properly drained, and blood belongs to God (Leviticus 17:10-14). Eating such meat would be to partake in something uncontrolled, unconsecrated, and associated with death and violence. Instead, it is thrown לַכֶּלֶב ("to the dog") — the dog occupies the lowest rung of the domestic order, and what is unfit for holy people is fit for the scavenger. The verse bookends the chapter: Israel began as a community that must do justice in property disputes, and it ends as a community whose very eating habits reflect their consecration to God.